Asthma in children is not just a matter of occasional wheezing or shortness of breath; it's a journey full of challenges and concerns for both the young ones affected and their families. As one of the most common chronic diseases in children, pediatric asthma is a complex intertwining of immunology, genetics, and environmental factors, significantly impacting daily activities, school attendance, and overall quality of life. Understanding the multifaceted nature of pediatric asthma becomes paramount for healthcare practitioners, parents, and caregivers alike.
Let’s discuss pediatric asthma within the realm of immunology to understand this condition at the root cause level. We will explore not only the clinical aspects but also the emotional and psychological impacts on children and their families.
Let this be a resource that empowers and informs, fostering a proactive and integrative approach to asthma care.
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What is Pediatric Asthma?
Pediatric asthma is defined as a chronic inflammatory condition of the airways, characterized by an overactive immune response to various triggers. This condition is a prominent example of how closely the immune system is intertwined with respiratory health, especially in children. Asthma's hallmark features include episodes of wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness, and coughing, which are the result of airway inflammation, bronchoconstriction, and increased mucus production.
The immune system plays a crucial role in both the development and exacerbation of asthma. Upon exposure to allergens, pollutants, or viral infections, the immune system's overreaction leads to the release of inflammatory mediators like cytokines and histamines, which contribute to airway inflammation and hyperresponsiveness. This inflammatory response is not only central to the pathophysiology of asthma but also serves as a target for therapeutic interventions. Understanding the immunological mechanisms underlying pediatric asthma is crucial, as it informs the development of personalized and effective management strategies.
What Are The Signs and Symptoms of Pediatric Asthma?
Asthma in children presents with a spectrum of signs and symptoms that can significantly impact their daily lives and activities. The most common manifestations include wheezing, a high-pitched whistling sound during breathing, particularly on exhalation; shortness of breath, which may worsen with physical activity or at night; chest tightness, often described by children as a feeling of something squeezing or sitting on their chest; and coughing, which may be chronic, worsen at night and intensify during episodes of viral infections.
The variability of these symptoms is a key characteristic of pediatric asthma. Not all children will experience every symptom, and the frequency and severity of symptoms can vary widely among affected individuals. This variability often complicates diagnosis and management, as symptoms can overlap with other respiratory conditions and may change over time or in response to triggers such as allergens, cold air, exercise, or emotional stress.
The effect of these symptoms on daily activities cannot be overstated. Frequent coughing and breathlessness can disrupt sleep, leading to daytime fatigue and reduced concentration at school. Exercise intolerance may also result from uncontrolled asthma, limiting participation in sports and physical activities, which are vital for social development and overall health.
Evidence underscores the importance of recognizing these signs and symptoms early and accurately. Prompt diagnosis and effective management strategies are crucial in minimizing the impact of asthma on a child's quality of life, enabling them to lead active and healthy lives despite their condition.
How Common is Pediatric Asthma?
Pediatric asthma ranks as one of the most prevalent chronic diseases among children globally, underscoring its significance in pediatric healthcare. Current statistics reveal that approximately 6.5% of children in the United States are diagnosed with asthma, making it a leading cause of chronic illness and school absenteeism in this age group. This prevalence translates to millions of affected children, with similar trends observed worldwide, albeit with variations across different regions and populations.
Over the past few decades, the rates of pediatric asthma have shown both increases and plateauing phases. The late 20th century witnessed a marked rise in asthma cases, a trend that has somewhat stabilized in recent years, though not universally. These fluctuations can be attributed to several factors, including enhanced diagnostic capabilities, increased awareness, and potential changes in environmental exposures and lifestyle factors. Urbanization, increased exposure to indoor allergens, and changes in diet and physical activity are often cited as contributory factors to asthma rates.
What Are The Root Causes of Pediatric Asthma?
The etiology of pediatric asthma is multifactorial, with genetic, environmental, and immunological components playing pivotal roles in its development. Understanding these underlying factors is crucial for devising effective prevention and management strategies.
Genetic Factors:
Asthma has a strong genetic basis, with children having a higher risk if one or both parents have asthma or other atopic diseases. Specific genes associated with immune response and inflammation have been linked to asthma, suggesting that heredity influences susceptibility to the disease. However, genetics alone cannot fully explain the onset of asthma, indicating that environmental interactions with genetic predispositions are key.
Environmental Factors:
Environmental exposures significantly contribute to the initiation and exacerbation of asthma in genetically susceptible individuals. Allergens such as dust mites, pet dander, pollen, and mold are common triggers. Urbanization has been associated with increased asthma rates, possibly due to higher exposure to pollutants, including vehicle emissions and industrial pollutants, which can irritate the airways and exacerbate symptoms. Indoor air quality, influenced by tobacco smoke and volatile organic compounds, also plays a critical role.
Immunological Factors and Allergies:
The immune system's overreaction to harmless substances leads to the chronic inflammation characteristic of asthma. Allergies are a major risk factor for developing asthma, with allergic rhinitis and eczema often co-occurring. This suggests a shared pathophysiological mechanism, where the immune system's heightened sensitivity to allergens triggers asthma symptoms.
Viral Respiratory Infections:
Viral infections, particularly in early childhood, can significantly impact the developing immune system and respiratory tract. Infections such as the respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and rhinovirus are known to precipitate the onset of asthma in predisposed children by causing inflammation and damage to the airway tissues, further altering immune responses to environmental triggers.
How Do You Test and Diagnose Pediatric Asthma?
Diagnosing pediatric asthma requires a comprehensive approach, integrating clinical evaluation with specific diagnostic tests to assess lung function and identify potential triggers. A thorough medical history and physical examination are foundational, enabling healthcare providers to gather critical information about symptoms, family history of asthma or allergies, and environmental exposures. This initial assessment guides further testing and management strategies.
Spirometry:
Spirometry is a key diagnostic tool in assessing lung function, measuring the volume and speed of air that can be inhaled and exhaled. This test is crucial for confirming the presence of airflow obstruction, a hallmark of asthma, and can help in determining the severity of the condition. It is typically used in children over the age of 5 due to the need for patient cooperation.
Peak Flow Measurement:
Peak flow meters measure the maximum speed of expiration, helping to monitor lung function over time. Fluctuations in peak flow readings can indicate asthma exacerbations and help in assessing treatment efficacy.
Allergy Testing:
Since allergies are a common trigger for asthma, identifying specific allergens is crucial. Skin prick tests or blood tests for specific IgE antibodies can help pinpoint triggers, guiding avoidance strategies and tailored treatment plans.
Functional Medicine Laboratory Testing:
After standard diagnostic labs and procedures have been run, additional laboratory tests may be utilized to uncover underlying (root cause) imbalances or triggers contributing to asthma. These can include assessments for chronic inflammation and immune system dysregulation. For example, the measurement of serum total IgE, blood eosinophilia (which can be measured on a standard CBC w/ Diff, and FeNO levels (an exhaled nitric oxide evaluation) can all be particularly useful in predicting asthma in infants and young children, for whom lung function tests may pose challenges.
The Precision Airborne Allergy test by Precision Point is an example of a thorough panel to assess possible trigger allergies. When patients know exactly which allergens are affecting them, personalized treatment becomes much clearer.
What Are The Conventional Treatments for Pediatric Asthma?
Conventional treatments for pediatric asthma are designed to manage symptoms, prevent exacerbations, and maintain normal lung function, enabling children to lead active, healthy lives. The treatment regimen typically includes a combination of quick-relief medications for acute symptoms and long-term control medications to prevent future episodes.
Quick-Relief Medications:
Bronchodilators, such as short-acting beta-agonists (SABAs), are the cornerstone of acute asthma symptom management. These medications work rapidly to relax the muscles around the airways, relieving symptoms like wheezing, coughing, and shortness of breath. They are typically administered via inhalers or nebulizers for fast action and are essential for treating asthma attacks.
Long-Term Control Medications:
Inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) are the most effective long-term therapy for most children with asthma, reducing inflammation and sensitivity of the airways to prevent chronic symptoms and exacerbations. Depending on the severity of the asthma, other controller medications may include long-acting beta-agonists (LABAs), leukotriene receptor antagonists, and monoclonal antibodies. These medications are taken daily, regardless of the presence of symptoms, to maintain control over asthma.
Asthma Action Plans:
A crucial component of managing pediatric asthma is the development of a personalized asthma action plan. This plan, created by healthcare providers in collaboration with patients and their families, outlines specific instructions for daily management, including how and when to take medications. It also provides clear guidelines for recognizing early signs of exacerbations, adjusting medications in response to worsening symptoms, and when to seek out emergency care. Asthma action plans empower patients and caregivers with the knowledge and confidence to effectively manage asthma, aiming to reduce emergency visits and improve overall quality of life.
What Are Some Complementary and Integrative Options for Managing Pediatric Asthma?
Integrative and complementary treatments for pediatric asthma focus on holistic approaches to reduce symptoms, improve lung function, and enhance overall well-being. While these should not replace conventional interventions and treatments, they can serve as valuable adjuncts in comprehensive asthma management.
Dietary Changes:
A healthy diet robust in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains can support immune function and reduce inflammation. Foods naturally high in antioxidants like vitamins C and E, may help combat oxidative stress associated with asthma. Additionally, reducing intake of processed foods and those high in sugar and saturated fats may decrease the severity of asthma symptoms. A Mediterranean Diet is often recommended, as it encompasses these guidelines.
Supplementation:
Certain nutritional supplements have been studied for their potential benefits in asthma management. Vitamin D supplementation, for example, can support immune function and may reduce the number and severity of asthma exacerbations, especially in children with underlying deficiencies. Omega-3 fatty acids, from fish oil, have anti-inflammatory properties that likely help reduce airway inflammation. However, it's important to consult with a healthcare provider before starting any supplementation, as needs can vary greatly among individuals.
Mind-Body Practices:
Techniques such as breathing exercises, yoga, and mindfulness can be particularly beneficial for children with asthma. These practices can help manage stress, which is a known trigger for asthma exacerbations. Breathing exercises, like those taught in the Buteyko method or pranayama yoga, can improve breathing efficiency and control, reducing hyperventilation and airway constriction.
Environmental Control:
Addressing environmental triggers is crucial in natural asthma management. This includes maintaining a healthy indoor environment by reducing exposure to allergens like dust mites, pet dander, mold, and tobacco smoke. Using air purifiers, maintaining optimal humidity levels, and even avoiding the use of harsh chemical cleaners can also help minimize asthma triggers at home.
[signup]
Pediatric Asthma and Immunology: Key Takeaways
Pediatric asthma is a complex condition that demands a holistic management approach. This article has covered the essentials of asthma care, from its immunology and symptoms to its prevalence and causes. We've examined both conventional treatments, like medications and asthma action plans, and natural therapies, emphasizing diet, supplements, and environmental adjustments. By combining these strategies, healthcare providers can tailor care to improve children's lives with asthma. Emphasizing ongoing education and evidence-based practice will further enhance our ability to support young patients in leading healthier and more active lives.
Asthma in children is not just a matter of occasional wheezing or shortness of breath; it's a journey full of challenges and concerns for both the young ones affected and their families. As one of the most common chronic conditions in children, pediatric asthma involves a complex mix of immunology, genetics, and environmental factors, significantly impacting daily activities, school attendance, and overall quality of life. Understanding the multifaceted nature of pediatric asthma is important for healthcare practitioners, parents, and caregivers alike.
Let’s discuss pediatric asthma within the realm of immunology to understand this condition at a foundational level. We will explore not only the clinical aspects but also the emotional and psychological impacts on children and their families.
Let this be a resource that empowers and informs, fostering a proactive and integrative approach to asthma care.
[signup]
What is Pediatric Asthma?
Pediatric asthma is defined as a chronic inflammatory condition of the airways, characterized by an overactive immune response to various triggers. This condition is a prominent example of how closely the immune system is intertwined with respiratory health, especially in children. Asthma's hallmark features include episodes of wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness, and coughing, which are the result of airway inflammation, bronchoconstriction, and increased mucus production.
The immune system plays a crucial role in both the development and exacerbation of asthma. Upon exposure to allergens, pollutants, or viral infections, the immune system's overreaction leads to the release of inflammatory mediators like cytokines and histamines, which contribute to airway inflammation and hyperresponsiveness. This inflammatory response is central to the pathophysiology of asthma and serves as a focus for management strategies. Understanding the immunological mechanisms underlying pediatric asthma is important, as it informs the development of personalized and effective management strategies.
What Are The Signs and Symptoms of Pediatric Asthma?
Asthma in children presents with a spectrum of signs and symptoms that can significantly impact their daily lives and activities. The most common manifestations include wheezing, a high-pitched whistling sound during breathing, particularly on exhalation; shortness of breath, which may worsen with physical activity or at night; chest tightness, often described by children as a feeling of something squeezing or sitting on their chest; and coughing, which may be chronic, worsen at night and intensify during episodes of viral infections.
The variability of these symptoms is a key characteristic of pediatric asthma. Not all children will experience every symptom, and the frequency and severity of symptoms can vary widely among affected individuals. This variability often complicates diagnosis and management, as symptoms can overlap with other respiratory conditions and may change over time or in response to triggers such as allergens, cold air, exercise, or emotional stress.
The effect of these symptoms on daily activities cannot be overstated. Frequent coughing and breathlessness can disrupt sleep, leading to daytime fatigue and reduced concentration at school. Exercise intolerance may also result from uncontrolled asthma, limiting participation in sports and physical activities, which are vital for social development and overall health.
Recognizing these signs and symptoms early and accurately is important. Prompt diagnosis and effective management strategies are crucial in minimizing the impact of asthma on a child's quality of life, enabling them to lead active and healthy lives despite their condition.
How Common is Pediatric Asthma?
Pediatric asthma ranks as one of the most prevalent chronic conditions among children globally, underscoring its significance in pediatric healthcare. Current statistics reveal that approximately 6.5% of children in the United States are diagnosed with asthma, making it a leading cause of chronic illness and school absenteeism in this age group. This prevalence translates to millions of affected children, with similar trends observed worldwide, albeit with variations across different regions and populations.
Over the past few decades, the rates of pediatric asthma have shown both increases and plateauing phases. The late 20th century witnessed a marked rise in asthma cases, a trend that has somewhat stabilized in recent years, though not universally. These fluctuations can be attributed to several factors, including enhanced diagnostic capabilities, increased awareness, and potential changes in environmental exposures and lifestyle factors. Urbanization, increased exposure to indoor allergens, and changes in diet and physical activity are often cited as contributory factors to asthma rates.
What Are The Root Causes of Pediatric Asthma?
The etiology of pediatric asthma is multifactorial, with genetic, environmental, and immunological components playing pivotal roles in its development. Understanding these underlying factors is crucial for devising effective prevention and management strategies.
Genetic Factors:
Asthma has a strong genetic basis, with children having a higher risk if one or both parents have asthma or other atopic conditions. Specific genes associated with immune response and inflammation have been linked to asthma, suggesting that heredity influences susceptibility to the condition. However, genetics alone cannot fully explain the onset of asthma, indicating that environmental interactions with genetic predispositions are key.
Environmental Factors:
Environmental exposures significantly contribute to the initiation and exacerbation of asthma in genetically susceptible individuals. Allergens such as dust mites, pet dander, pollen, and mold are common triggers. Urbanization has been associated with increased asthma rates, possibly due to higher exposure to pollutants, including vehicle emissions and industrial pollutants, which can irritate the airways and exacerbate symptoms. Indoor air quality, influenced by tobacco smoke and volatile organic compounds, also plays a critical role.
Immunological Factors and Allergies:
The immune system's overreaction to harmless substances leads to the chronic inflammation characteristic of asthma. Allergies are a major risk factor for developing asthma, with allergic rhinitis and eczema often co-occurring. This suggests a shared pathophysiological mechanism, where the immune system's heightened sensitivity to allergens triggers asthma symptoms.
Viral Respiratory Infections:
Viral infections, particularly in early childhood, can significantly impact the developing immune system and respiratory tract. Infections such as the respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and rhinovirus are known to precipitate the onset of asthma in predisposed children by causing inflammation and damage to the airway tissues, further altering immune responses to environmental triggers.
How Do You Test and Diagnose Pediatric Asthma?
Diagnosing pediatric asthma requires a comprehensive approach, integrating clinical evaluation with specific diagnostic tests to assess lung function and identify potential triggers. A thorough medical history and physical examination are foundational, enabling healthcare providers to gather critical information about symptoms, family history of asthma or allergies, and environmental exposures. This initial assessment guides further testing and management strategies.
Spirometry:
Spirometry is a key diagnostic tool in assessing lung function, measuring the volume and speed of air that can be inhaled and exhaled. This test is crucial for confirming the presence of airflow obstruction, a hallmark of asthma, and can help in determining the severity of the condition. It is typically used in children over the age of 5 due to the need for patient cooperation.
Peak Flow Measurement:
Peak flow meters measure the maximum speed of expiration, helping to monitor lung function over time. Fluctuations in peak flow readings can indicate asthma exacerbations and help in assessing management strategies.
Allergy Testing:
Since allergies are a common trigger for asthma, identifying specific allergens is crucial. Skin prick tests or blood tests for specific IgE antibodies can help pinpoint triggers, guiding avoidance strategies and tailored management plans.
Functional Medicine Laboratory Testing:
After standard diagnostic labs and procedures have been run, additional laboratory tests may be utilized to uncover underlying imbalances or triggers contributing to asthma. These can include assessments for chronic inflammation and immune system dysregulation. For example, the measurement of serum total IgE, blood eosinophilia (which can be measured on a standard CBC w/ Diff, and FeNO levels (an exhaled nitric oxide evaluation) can all be particularly useful in predicting asthma in infants and young children, for whom lung function tests may pose challenges.
The Precision Airborne Allergy test by Precision Point is an example of a thorough panel to assess possible trigger allergies. When patients know exactly which allergens are affecting them, personalized management becomes much clearer.
What Are The Conventional Treatments for Pediatric Asthma?
Conventional treatments for pediatric asthma are designed to manage symptoms, prevent exacerbations, and maintain normal lung function, enabling children to lead active, healthy lives. The treatment regimen typically includes a combination of quick-relief medications for acute symptoms and long-term control medications to prevent future episodes.
Quick-Relief Medications:
Bronchodilators, such as short-acting beta-agonists (SABAs), are the cornerstone of acute asthma symptom management. These medications work rapidly to relax the muscles around the airways, relieving symptoms like wheezing, coughing, and shortness of breath. They are typically administered via inhalers or nebulizers for fast action and are essential for managing asthma attacks.
Long-Term Control Medications:
Inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) are the most effective long-term therapy for most children with asthma, reducing inflammation and sensitivity of the airways to prevent chronic symptoms and exacerbations. Depending on the severity of the asthma, other controller medications may include long-acting beta-agonists (LABAs), leukotriene receptor antagonists, and monoclonal antibodies. These medications are taken daily, regardless of the presence of symptoms, to maintain control over asthma.
Asthma Action Plans:
A crucial component of managing pediatric asthma is the development of a personalized asthma action plan. This plan, created by healthcare providers in collaboration with patients and their families, outlines specific instructions for daily management, including how and when to take medications. It also provides clear guidelines for recognizing early signs of exacerbations, adjusting medications in response to worsening symptoms, and when to seek out emergency care. Asthma action plans empower patients and caregivers with the knowledge and confidence to effectively manage asthma, aiming to reduce emergency visits and improve overall quality of life.
What Are Some Complementary and Integrative Options for Managing Pediatric Asthma?
Integrative and complementary approaches for pediatric asthma focus on holistic methods to reduce symptoms, improve lung function, and enhance overall well-being. While these should not replace conventional interventions and treatments, they can serve as valuable adjuncts in comprehensive asthma management.
Dietary Changes:
A healthy diet robust in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains can support immune function and reduce inflammation. Foods naturally high in antioxidants like vitamins C and E, may help manage oxidative stress associated with asthma. Additionally, reducing intake of processed foods and those high in sugar and saturated fats may decrease the severity of asthma symptoms. A Mediterranean Diet is often recommended, as it encompasses these guidelines.
Supplementation:
Certain nutritional supplements have been studied for their potential benefits in asthma management. Vitamin D supplementation, for example, can support immune function and may help manage the number and severity of asthma exacerbations, especially in children with underlying deficiencies. Omega-3 fatty acids, from fish oil, have anti-inflammatory properties that may help support airway health. However, it's important to consult with a healthcare provider before starting any supplementation, as needs can vary greatly among individuals.
Mind-Body Practices:
Techniques such as breathing exercises, yoga, and mindfulness can be particularly beneficial for children with asthma. These practices can help manage stress, which is a known trigger for asthma exacerbations. Breathing exercises, like those taught in the Buteyko method or pranayama yoga, can improve breathing efficiency and control, reducing hyperventilation and airway constriction.
Environmental Control:
Addressing environmental triggers is crucial in natural asthma management. This includes maintaining a healthy indoor environment by reducing exposure to allergens like dust mites, pet dander, mold, and tobacco smoke. Using air purifiers, maintaining optimal humidity levels, and even avoiding the use of harsh chemical cleaners can also help minimize asthma triggers at home.
[signup]
Pediatric Asthma and Immunology: Key Takeaways
Pediatric asthma is a complex condition that demands a holistic management approach. This article has covered the essentials of asthma care, from its immunology and symptoms to its prevalence and causes. We've examined both conventional treatments, like medications and asthma action plans, and natural therapies, emphasizing diet, supplements, and environmental adjustments. By combining these strategies, healthcare providers can tailor care to improve children's lives with asthma. Emphasizing ongoing education and evidence-based practice will further enhance our ability to support young patients in leading healthier and more active lives.
The information in this article is designed for educational purposes only and is not intended to be a substitute for informed medical advice or care. This information should not be used to diagnose or treat any health problems or illnesses without consulting a doctor. Consult with a health care practitioner before relying on any information in this article or on this website.
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Lab Tests in This Article
Total IgE by Alletess Medical Laboratory
Serum
This test measures IgE antibodies in the patient's blood. Eleveted total IgE levels are an indication of allergies, atopic disorders, parasitic disorders, or IgE Myeloma.
CBC w/ Diff by Access Med Labs
Whole Blood
The complete blood count (CBC) provides a general hematologic assessment. It serves as a screening test for numerous disease states including anemia, inflammatory processes, and leukemia. This test includes the white blood cell differential.
Precision Airborne Allergy by Precision Point
Serum
Precision Point Diagnostics’ Airborne Allergy Test measures the body’s immunoglobulin E (IgE) response to 86 common airborne allergens including pet dander, mold, dust mites, grasses, crops, trees, and weeds.
GI Effects® Comprehensive Profile - 1 day by Genova Diagnostics
Stool
The GI Effects® Comprehensive Profile is a group of advanced stool tests that assess digestive function, intestinal inflammation, and the intestinal microbiome to assist in the management of gastrointestinal health. This is the 1-day version of the test; it is also available as a 3-day test.
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Boonpiyathad, T., Sözener, Z. C., Satitsuksanoa, P., & Akdis, C. A. (2019). Immunologic mechanisms in asthma. Seminars in Immunology, 46(101333), 101333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smim.2019.101333
Brigham, E. P., Woo, H., McCormack, M., Rice, J., Koehler, K., Vulcain, T., Wu, T., Koch, A., Sharma, S., Kolahdooz, F., Bose, S., Hanson, C., Romero, K., Diette, G., & Hansel, N. N. (2019). Omega-3 and omega-6 intake modifies asthma severity and response to indoor air pollution in children. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 199(12), 1478–1486. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201808-1474oc
National Center for Environmental Health (U.S.). Division of Environmental Hazards and Health Effects. (2014). Allergy testing for persons with asthma. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/80010
Lack, S., Brown, R., & Kinser, P. A. (2020). An integrative review of yoga and mindfulness-based approaches for children and adolescents with asthma. Journal of Pediatric Nursing, 52, 76–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedn.2020.03.006
Luz Garcia-Garcia, M., Calvo Rey, C., & del Rosal Rabes, T. (2016). Pediatric asthma and viral infection. Archivos de Bronconeumología (English Edition), 52(5), 269–273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arbr.2016.03.010
Martin, J., Townshend, J., & Brodlie, M. (2022). Diagnosis and management of asthma in children. BMJ Paediatrics Open, 6(1), e001277. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjpo-2021-001277
Murrison, L. B., Brandt, E. B., Myers, J. B., & Hershey, G. K. K. (2019). Environmental exposures and mechanisms in allergy and asthma development. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 129(4), 1504–1515. https://doi.org/10.1172/jci124612
Tesse, R., Borrelli, G., Mongelli, G., Mastrorilli, V., & Cardinale, F. (2018). Treating pediatric asthma according guidelines. Frontiers in Pediatrics, 6(234). https://doi.org/10.3389/fped.2018.00234
Thomsen, S. F. (2015). Genetics of asthma: An introduction for the clinician. European Clinical Respiratory Journal, 2(1), 24643. https://doi.org/10.3402/ecrj.v2.24643
Wiertsema, S. P., van Bergenhenegouwen, J., Garssen, J., & Knippels, L. M. J. (2021). The interplay between the gut microbiome and the immune system in the context of infectious diseases throughout life and the role of nutrition in optimizing treatment strategies. Nutrients, 13(3), 886. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13030886
Wu, F., & Takaro, T. K. (2007). Childhood asthma and environmental interventions. Environmental Health Perspectives, 115(6), 971–975. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.8989
Zhang, J., He, M., Yu, Q., Xiao, F., Zhang, Y., & Liang, C. (2023). The effects of a healthy diet on asthma and wheezing in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Asthma and Allergy, 16, 1007–1024. https://doi.org/10.2147/JAA.S423884
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