Living with Irritable Bowel Syndrome is an unpredictable and challenging experience marked by sudden abdominal pain, bloating, and fluctuating bowel habits, all of which can disrupt daily life and emotional well-being.
Managing IBS often requires a multifaceted approach, and pharmaceutical treatments may play a crucial role. While lifestyle and dietary changes are important, medications are often necessary to control the symptoms and prevent flare-ups.
These treatments can help alleviate discomfort, regulate bowel movements, and improve overall well-being.
This article provides a detailed overview of the best pharmaceutical options for managing IBS, including specific medications for each IBS subtype and new treatments. It aims to help readers understand how to effectively use these medications and what factors to consider when choosing a treatment plan.
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Understanding IBS
Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) is a functional gastrointestinal disorder characterized by a group of symptoms that affect the digestive system, particularly the large intestine [16.].
This chronic condition leads to recurring discomfort, making effective and ongoing symptom management crucial.
IBS is classified into four types based on bowel habits:
- IBS-C, characterized by constipation [31.]
- IBS-D, marked by diarrhea [31.]
- IBS-M, involving both constipation and diarrhea [31.]
- IBS-U, where symptoms don't clearly fit into any of the other categories [31.]. This classification may aid in personalizing treatment for individuals with IBS
Common symptoms of IBS include abdominal pain or discomfort, bloating, gas, and changes in bowel habits such as diarrhea, constipation, or a combination of both. These symptoms can vary in intensity and may disrupt daily activities, leading to a significant impact on a person's quality of life.
The unpredictable nature of IBS can cause stress, depression and anxiety, further exacerbating the condition.
Causes and Triggers
While the exact cause of IBS is not fully understood, it is believed to result from a combination of factors. These may include abnormal gut motility, heightened sensitivity to pain in the gastrointestinal tract, and disruptions in the communication between the gut and the brain.
This connection is often referred to as the gut-brain axis, which involves bidirectional communication between the gut and the brain through neural, endocrine, and immune pathways [19.].
Several potential triggers can exacerbate IBS symptoms, including:
- Dietary Factors: certain foods including fatty foods, dairy products, caffeine, alcohol, and artificial sweeteners can trigger symptoms [5., 23.]. Some grains and legumes, chocolate, gluten, and specific fruits and vegetables have also been linked to worsening IBS symptoms [5.].
- Stress: emotional stress and anxiety are known to worsen IBS symptoms via the gut-brain axis, as stress can alter the way the digestive system functions [29.].
- Hormonal Changes: women are more likely to live with IBS [1.]. Many women with IBS report that symptoms worsen during menstrual periods as well as in perimenopause and early menopause, suggesting a link to hormonal fluctuations [18.].
- Infections and Gut Flora Imbalance: some cases of IBS may be linked to a previous gastrointestinal infection or an imbalance in the gut microbiota [21., 27., 32.].
Overview of Pharmaceutical Treatments
The primary goal of medications in managing Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) is to ease the wide range of debilitating symptoms that can significantly disrupt daily life.
By providing targeted relief, these treatments can help restore a sense of normalcy and enhance the overall quality of life for those affected.
Additionally, effective symptom management not only improves physical comfort but also helps alleviate the psychological stress, anxiety, and depression that often accompany this chronic condition.
Categories of IBS Medications
Medications for IBS are grouped by the specific symptoms they treat, allowing for a more tailored approach to each patient's needs.
Antispasmodics reduce abdominal pain and cramping, while laxatives are used to relieve constipation in IBS-C [16.]. For those with IBS-D, anti-diarrheal medications work to control diarrhea [16.].
Additionally, serotonin receptor modulators help regulate bowel movements and sensitivity [16., 17., 29.], while chloride channel activators ease severe constipation [16.].
Certain antidepressants are also used to manage the pain, anxiety, and depression that often accompany IBS, offering a well-rounded treatment approach [16., 17.].
Medications for IBS-C (Constipation-Predominant IBS)
Here are the medications that your prescribing physician may recommend for IBS-C. It is important to always work with a trusted physician when considering medication use, whether it is over-the-counter or prescription.
Laxatives
Purpose: to ease bowel movements and relieve constipation, particularly in IBS-C (Constipation-Predominant IBS).
Laxatives are often used to address chronic constipation, although evidence is lacking for their use as a primary treatment for IBS [30.].
Examples: psyllium (bulk-forming), Polyethylene glycol (osmotic), Bisacodyl (stimulant).
How They Work: laxatives either increase stool bulk, draw water into the intestines, or stimulate intestinal contractions, promoting regular bowel movements.
Lubiprostone (Amitiza)
Mechanism of Action: chloride channel activator
Purpose: to increase fluid secretion in the intestines, softening stool and promoting regular bowel movements in IBS-C.
How It Works: lubiprostone activates chloride channels in the small intestine, increasing fluid secretion, which softens stool and relieves constipation.
Effectiveness: lubiprostone improves stool consistency, increases bowel movement frequency, and reduces abdominal discomfort in IBS-C. Common side effects include nausea and diarrhea.
Linaclotide (Linzess)
Mechanism of Action: guanylate cyclase-C (GC-C) agonist
Purpose: to enhance bowel movements and reduce abdominal pain by increasing intestinal fluid and reducing gut sensitivity in IBS-C.
How It Works: linaclotide activates guanylate cyclase-C receptors, increasing cGMP, which promotes fluid secretion and speeds up stool passage while reducing pain sensitivity.
Effectiveness: linaclotide improves stool frequency and consistency and reduces abdominal pain and bloating in IBS-C. The most common side effect is diarrhea.
Medications for IBS-D (Diarrhea-Predominant IBS)
Here are the medications that your prescribing physician may recommend for IBS-D.
Anti-Diarrheal Medications
Example: loperamide (Imodium)
How It Works: loperamide slows gut motility by acting on opioid receptors in the intestines, reducing the frequency and urgency of bowel movements. It allows more time for water absorption, making stool firmer.
Effectiveness: loperamide is effective for managing acute diarrhea in IBS-D, helping to control symptoms with minimal side effects when used as directed.
Eluxadoline (Viberzi)
Mechanism of Action: opioid agonist/antagonist
How It Works: eluxadoline binds to opioid receptors in the gut to reduce bowel contractions and increase sphincter tone, which decreases diarrhea and abdominal pain without causing significant constipation.
Indications and Effectiveness: eluxadoline is indicated for IBS-D in adults, effectively reducing diarrhea and abdominal pain. It should be used with caution in patients without a gallbladder or with a history of pancreatitis due to specific safety risks.
Alosetron (Lotronex)
Mechanism of Action: 5-HT3 Serotonin Receptor Antagonist
How It Works: alosetron is a selective serotonin 5-HT3 receptor antagonist that slows intestinal transit, reduces visceral pain, and manages symptoms of IBS-D.
Indications, Restrictions, and Effectiveness: alosetron is indicated for severe IBS-D in women unresponsive to conventional treatments.
Due to risks like ischemic colitis, it is only available under a restricted program. When used correctly, it significantly reduces diarrhea and abdominal pain, improving quality of life for eligible patients.
Medications for Mixed IBS (IBS-M) and IBS-U
Here are the medications that your prescribing physician may recommend for IBS-U.
Antispasmodics
Purpose: to relieve cramping and abdominal pain.
Examples: Hyoscyamine, Dicyclomine.
How They Work: These medications relax the smooth muscles of the gastrointestinal tract, reducing spasms that cause pain.
Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCAs)
Mechanism of Action: TCAs inhibit the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine, reducing visceral hypersensitivity and slowing gut motility, which is beneficial for managing diarrhea-predominant symptoms.
Indications for IBS: TCAs are indicated for IBS-M (Mixed IBS) and IBS-U (Unsubtyped IBS) patients with significant abdominal pain or discomfort, particularly those with coexisting depression or anxiety.
Effectiveness: TCAs effectively reduce abdominal pain and improve bowel function, especially in IBS-M. However, anticholinergic side effects like dry mouth and constipation may limit their use, particularly in patients prone to constipation.
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)
Mechanism of Action: SSRIs increase serotonin levels by blocking its reuptake. This modulates gut sensitivity and motility, which helps reduce visceral pain and improve bowel habits.
Indications for IBS: SSRIs are used for IBS patients with anxiety or depression, particularly when these conditions exacerbate IBS symptoms or when pain is more pronounced than bowel irregularities.
Effectiveness: SSRIs show inconsistent results in improving IBS symptoms, but they have a better safety profile with fewer side effects compared to TCAs [12.]. Side effects may include nausea, sleep disturbances, and sexual dysfunction.
New and Emerging Treatments
As research continues to advance, several new and emerging treatments for IBS are gaining attention for their potential to provide relief for patients.
Rifaximin (Xifaxan)
Mechanism of Action: antibiotic
How It Works: Rifaximin is a non-systemic antibiotic that targets and reduces specific gut bacteria linked to IBS-D symptoms [13.]. It decreases bacterial overgrowth and alters gut microbiota, reducing bloating, diarrhea, and abdominal pain.
Indications and Effectiveness: Primarily used for IBS-D, Rifaximin provides significant symptom relief, with some patients benefiting from repeat courses. It is well-tolerated with minimal side effects due to low absorption.
However, research indicates that these changes are temporary and not sustained long-term [13.].
Probiotics and Prebiotics
Role in IBS Treatment: Probiotics and prebiotics modulate gut microbiota to restore a healthy balance in IBS patients. Probiotics are beneficial bacteria, and prebiotics are fibers that support their growth.
Evidence of Effectiveness: certain probiotic strains like Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus can reduce bloating, pain, and irregular bowel habits [3., 4.].
Prebiotics like inulin also show promise, though more research is needed to establish clear guidelines for IBS treatment [37.].
Considerations and Side Effects
Potential Side Effects of IBS Medications: IBS medications can cause various side effects such as dry mouth, dizziness, constipation, nausea, or sleep disturbances, depending on the drug type and mechanism of action [36.].
Managing and Mitigating Side Effects: side effects can be managed by adjusting dosages, switching medications, and adopting supportive measures like diet changes. Regular follow-ups with healthcare providers are crucial.
Long-Term Use and Safety
Safety Considerations for Prolonged Medication Use: long-term use of IBS medications may pose risks like dependency, tolerance, or serious side effects including ischemic colitis or cardiovascular issues.
Regular review of treatment plans with a healthcare provider is essential.
Monitoring and Regular Check-Ups: continuous monitoring through regular check-ups helps assess the treatment’s effectiveness and detect any adverse effects. Tests like blood work or ECGs may be needed.
Patients given antidepressant medications as part of their IBS treatment may need regular assessments of mood and mental health, as well as monitoring for side effects.
Interactions with Other Medications
Potential Drug Interactions: IBS medications can interact with other drugs, potentially reducing effectiveness or increasing side effects. Awareness of these interactions is important.
Importance of Discussing All Medications with Healthcare Providers: patients should provide a complete list of medications to their healthcare provider to avoid interactions and ensure safe, effective treatment. Regular updates and open communication are key.
Personalized Treatment Plans
Tailoring Treatment to Individual Needs and Symptoms: because IBS varies widely among patients, treatment plans must be customized to address specific symptoms, triggers, and lifestyle factors.
Individualized care improves treatment outcomes by focusing on the unique needs of each patient.
Working with Healthcare Providers
Importance of Regular Consultations and Follow-Ups: ongoing management of IBS requires regular consultations to monitor treatment effectiveness, adjust plans, and address any new symptoms.
Regular check-ins ensure that the treatment remains aligned with the patient's needs.
Adjusting Treatment Plans Based on Response and Side Effects: Treatment plans should also be flexible to accommodate changes in the patient's response and any side effects.
Adjustments in medication, dosage, or additional therapies help optimize outcomes and minimize side effects, ensuring the treatment plan remains effective and supportive.
[signup]
Key Takeaways
- Pharmaceutical treatments may be helpful for managing IBS symptoms. Individually tailored medication plans significantly improve quality of life in some patients by addressing specific issues like pain, constipation, and diarrhea.
- Patients should seek professional medical advice before starting or changing any treatment plan, as healthcare providers can offer personalized guidance and monitor for side effects.
- Effective IBS management involves a combination of medications and supportive care, requiring ongoing collaboration between patients and healthcare providers to achieve optimal symptom control and improve overall well-being.
Living with Irritable Bowel Syndrome can be an unpredictable and challenging experience marked by sudden abdominal pain, bloating, and fluctuating bowel habits, all of which may disrupt daily life and emotional well-being.
Managing IBS often requires a multifaceted approach, and pharmaceutical treatments can play a crucial role. While lifestyle and dietary changes are important, medications may be necessary to help manage symptoms and reduce the frequency of flare-ups.
These treatments can help alleviate discomfort, support regular bowel movements, and improve overall well-being.
This article provides a detailed overview of potential pharmaceutical options for managing IBS, including specific medications for each IBS subtype and new treatments. It aims to help readers understand how to effectively use these medications and what factors to consider when choosing a treatment plan.
[signup]
Understanding IBS
Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) is a functional gastrointestinal disorder characterized by a group of symptoms that affect the digestive system, particularly the large intestine [16.].
This chronic condition leads to recurring discomfort, making effective and ongoing symptom management important.
IBS is classified into four types based on bowel habits:
- IBS-C, characterized by constipation [31.]
- IBS-D, marked by diarrhea [31.]
- IBS-M, involving both constipation and diarrhea [31.]
- IBS-U, where symptoms don't clearly fit into any of the other categories [31.]. This classification may aid in personalizing treatment for individuals with IBS
Common symptoms of IBS include abdominal pain or discomfort, bloating, gas, and changes in bowel habits such as diarrhea, constipation, or a combination of both. These symptoms can vary in intensity and may disrupt daily activities, leading to a significant impact on a person's quality of life.
The unpredictable nature of IBS can cause stress, depression and anxiety, which might further exacerbate the condition.
Causes and Triggers
While the exact cause of IBS is not fully understood, it is believed to result from a combination of factors. These may include abnormal gut motility, heightened sensitivity to pain in the gastrointestinal tract, and disruptions in the communication between the gut and the brain.
This connection is often referred to as the gut-brain axis, which involves bidirectional communication between the gut and the brain through neural, endocrine, and immune pathways [19.].
Several potential triggers can exacerbate IBS symptoms, including:
- Dietary Factors: certain foods including fatty foods, dairy products, caffeine, alcohol, and artificial sweeteners may trigger symptoms [5., 23.]. Some grains and legumes, chocolate, gluten, and specific fruits and vegetables have also been linked to worsening IBS symptoms [5.].
- Stress: emotional stress and anxiety are known to worsen IBS symptoms via the gut-brain axis, as stress can alter the way the digestive system functions [29.].
- Hormonal Changes: women are more likely to live with IBS [1.]. Many women with IBS report that symptoms worsen during menstrual periods as well as in perimenopause and early menopause, suggesting a link to hormonal fluctuations [18.].
- Infections and Gut Flora Imbalance: some cases of IBS may be linked to a previous gastrointestinal infection or an imbalance in the gut microbiota [21., 27., 32.].
Overview of Pharmaceutical Treatments
The primary goal of medications in managing Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) is to help ease the wide range of symptoms that can significantly disrupt daily life.
By providing targeted relief, these treatments can help restore a sense of normalcy and enhance the overall quality of life for those affected.
Additionally, effective symptom management not only improves physical comfort but also helps alleviate the psychological stress, anxiety, and depression that often accompany this chronic condition.
Categories of IBS Medications
Medications for IBS are grouped by the specific symptoms they address, allowing for a more tailored approach to each patient's needs.
Antispasmodics may help reduce abdominal pain and cramping, while laxatives are used to relieve constipation in IBS-C [16.]. For those with IBS-D, anti-diarrheal medications work to help manage diarrhea [16.].
Additionally, serotonin receptor modulators help regulate bowel movements and sensitivity [16., 17., 29.], while chloride channel activators may ease severe constipation [16.].
Certain antidepressants are also used to help manage the pain, anxiety, and depression that often accompany IBS, offering a well-rounded treatment approach [16., 17.].
Medications for IBS-C (Constipation-Predominant IBS)
Here are the medications that your prescribing physician may recommend for IBS-C. It is important to always work with a trusted physician when considering medication use, whether it is over-the-counter or prescription.
Laxatives
Purpose: to help ease bowel movements and relieve constipation, particularly in IBS-C (Constipation-Predominant IBS).
Laxatives are often used to address chronic constipation, although evidence is lacking for their use as a primary treatment for IBS [30.].
Examples: psyllium (bulk-forming), Polyethylene glycol (osmotic), Bisacodyl (stimulant).
How They Work: laxatives either increase stool bulk, draw water into the intestines, or stimulate intestinal contractions, promoting regular bowel movements.
Lubiprostone (Amitiza)
Mechanism of Action: chloride channel activator
Purpose: to increase fluid secretion in the intestines, softening stool and promoting regular bowel movements in IBS-C.
How It Works: lubiprostone activates chloride channels in the small intestine, increasing fluid secretion, which softens stool and relieves constipation.
Effectiveness: lubiprostone may improve stool consistency, increase bowel movement frequency, and reduce abdominal discomfort in IBS-C. Common side effects include nausea and diarrhea.
Linaclotide (Linzess)
Mechanism of Action: guanylate cyclase-C (GC-C) agonist
Purpose: to enhance bowel movements and reduce abdominal pain by increasing intestinal fluid and reducing gut sensitivity in IBS-C.
How It Works: linaclotide activates guanylate cyclase-C receptors, increasing cGMP, which promotes fluid secretion and speeds up stool passage while reducing pain sensitivity.
Effectiveness: linaclotide may improve stool frequency and consistency and reduce abdominal pain and bloating in IBS-C. The most common side effect is diarrhea.
Medications for IBS-D (Diarrhea-Predominant IBS)
Here are the medications that your prescribing physician may recommend for IBS-D.
Anti-Diarrheal Medications
Example: loperamide (Imodium)
How It Works: loperamide slows gut motility by acting on opioid receptors in the intestines, reducing the frequency and urgency of bowel movements. It allows more time for water absorption, making stool firmer.
Effectiveness: loperamide may be effective for managing acute diarrhea in IBS-D, helping to control symptoms with minimal side effects when used as directed.
Eluxadoline (Viberzi)
Mechanism of Action: opioid agonist/antagonist
How It Works: eluxadoline binds to opioid receptors in the gut to reduce bowel contractions and increase sphincter tone, which decreases diarrhea and abdominal pain without causing significant constipation.
Indications and Effectiveness: eluxadoline is indicated for IBS-D in adults, effectively reducing diarrhea and abdominal pain. It should be used with caution in patients without a gallbladder or with a history of pancreatitis due to specific safety risks.
Alosetron (Lotronex)
Mechanism of Action: 5-HT3 Serotonin Receptor Antagonist
How It Works: alosetron is a selective serotonin 5-HT3 receptor antagonist that slows intestinal transit, reduces visceral pain, and manages symptoms of IBS-D.
Indications, Restrictions, and Effectiveness: alosetron is indicated for severe IBS-D in women unresponsive to conventional treatments.
Due to risks like ischemic colitis, it is only available under a restricted program. When used correctly, it may significantly reduce diarrhea and abdominal pain, improving quality of life for eligible patients.
Medications for Mixed IBS (IBS-M) and IBS-U
Here are the medications that your prescribing physician may recommend for IBS-U.
Antispasmodics
Purpose: to help relieve cramping and abdominal pain.
Examples: Hyoscyamine, Dicyclomine.
How They Work: These medications relax the smooth muscles of the gastrointestinal tract, reducing spasms that cause pain.
Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCAs)
Mechanism of Action: TCAs inhibit the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine, reducing visceral hypersensitivity and slowing gut motility, which may be beneficial for managing diarrhea-predominant symptoms.
Indications for IBS: TCAs are indicated for IBS-M (Mixed IBS) and IBS-U (Unsubtyped IBS) patients with significant abdominal pain or discomfort, particularly those with coexisting depression or anxiety.
Effectiveness: TCAs may effectively reduce abdominal pain and improve bowel function, especially in IBS-M. However, anticholinergic side effects like dry mouth and constipation may limit their use, particularly in patients prone to constipation.
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)
Mechanism of Action: SSRIs increase serotonin levels by blocking its reuptake. This modulates gut sensitivity and motility, which may help reduce visceral pain and improve bowel habits.
Indications for IBS: SSRIs are used for IBS patients with anxiety or depression, particularly when these conditions exacerbate IBS symptoms or when pain is more pronounced than bowel irregularities.
Effectiveness: SSRIs show inconsistent results in improving IBS symptoms, but they have a better safety profile with fewer side effects compared to TCAs [12.]. Side effects may include nausea, sleep disturbances, and sexual dysfunction.
New and Emerging Treatments
As research continues to advance, several new and emerging treatments for IBS are gaining attention for their potential to provide relief for patients.
Rifaximin (Xifaxan)
Mechanism of Action: antibiotic
How It Works: Rifaximin is a non-systemic antibiotic that targets and reduces specific gut bacteria linked to IBS-D symptoms [13.]. It decreases bacterial overgrowth and alters gut microbiota, which may reduce bloating, diarrhea, and abdominal pain.
Indications and Effectiveness: Primarily used for IBS-D, Rifaximin may provide significant symptom relief, with some patients benefiting from repeat courses. It is well-tolerated with minimal side effects due to low absorption.
However, research indicates that these changes are temporary and not sustained long-term [13.].
Probiotics and Prebiotics
Role in IBS Treatment: Probiotics and prebiotics modulate gut microbiota to help restore a healthy balance in IBS patients. Probiotics are beneficial bacteria, and prebiotics are fibers that support their growth.
Evidence of Effectiveness: certain probiotic strains like Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus may reduce bloating, pain, and irregular bowel habits [3., 4.].
Prebiotics like inulin also show promise, though more research is needed to establish clear guidelines for IBS treatment [37.].
Considerations and Side Effects
Potential Side Effects of IBS Medications: IBS medications can cause various side effects such as dry mouth, dizziness, constipation, nausea, or sleep disturbances, depending on the drug type and mechanism of action [36.].
Managing and Mitigating Side Effects: side effects can be managed by adjusting dosages, switching medications, and adopting supportive measures like diet changes. Regular follow-ups with healthcare providers are crucial.
Long-Term Use and Safety
Safety Considerations for Prolonged Medication Use: long-term use of IBS medications may pose risks like dependency, tolerance, or serious side effects including ischemic colitis or cardiovascular issues.
Regular review of treatment plans with a healthcare provider is essential.
Monitoring and Regular Check-Ups: continuous monitoring through regular check-ups helps assess the treatment’s effectiveness and detect any adverse effects. Tests like blood work or ECGs may be needed.
Patients given antidepressant medications as part of their IBS treatment may need regular assessments of mood and mental health, as well as monitoring for side effects.
Interactions with Other Medications
Potential Drug Interactions: IBS medications can interact with other drugs, potentially reducing effectiveness or increasing side effects. Awareness of these interactions is important.
Importance of Discussing All Medications with Healthcare Providers: patients should provide a complete list of medications to their healthcare provider to avoid interactions and ensure safe, effective treatment. Regular updates and open communication are key.
Personalized Treatment Plans
Tailoring Treatment to Individual Needs and Symptoms: because IBS varies widely among patients, treatment plans must be customized to address specific symptoms, triggers, and lifestyle factors.
Individualized care improves treatment outcomes by focusing on the unique needs of each patient.
Working with Healthcare Providers
Importance of Regular Consultations and Follow-Ups: ongoing management of IBS requires regular consultations to monitor treatment effectiveness, adjust plans, and address any new symptoms.
Regular check-ins ensure that the treatment remains aligned with the patient's needs.
Adjusting Treatment Plans Based on Response and Side Effects: Treatment plans should also be flexible to accommodate changes in the patient's response and any side effects.
Adjustments in medication, dosage, or additional therapies help optimize outcomes and minimize side effects, ensuring the treatment plan remains effective and supportive.
[signup]
Key Takeaways
- Pharmaceutical treatments may be helpful for managing IBS symptoms. Individually tailored medication plans can significantly improve quality of life in some patients by addressing specific issues like pain, constipation, and diarrhea.
- Patients should seek professional medical advice before starting or changing any treatment plan, as healthcare providers can offer personalized guidance and monitor for side effects.
- Effective IBS management involves a combination of medications and supportive care, requiring ongoing collaboration between patients and healthcare providers to achieve optimal symptom control and improve overall well-being.
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[13.] Fodor AA, Pimentel M, Chey WD, et al. Rifaximin is associated with modest, transient decreases in multiple taxa in the gut microbiota of patients with diarrhoea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome. Gut Microbes. 2018;10(1):22-33. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/19490976.2018.1460013
[14.] Greenan, S. (2021a, November 5). A functional medicine approach to IBS. Rupa Health. https://www.rupahealth.com/post/a-functional-medicine-approach-to-ibs
[15.] Greenan, S. (2021b, December 8). 5 probiotic-rich foods to eat instead of taking supplements. Rupa Health. https://www.rupahealth.com/post/the-different-types-of-probiotics-health-benefits
[16.] Hadley SK, Gaarder SM. Treatment of Irritable Bowel Syndrome. American Family Physician. 2005;72(12):2501-2508. https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2005/1215/p2501.html
[17.] Hammerle CW, Surawicz CM. Updates on treatment of irritable bowel syndrome. World Journal of Gastroenterology. 2008;14(17):2639. doi:https://doi.org/10.3748/wjg.14.2639
[18.] Heitkemper MM, Chang L. Do fluctuations in ovarian hormones affect gastrointestinal symptoms in women with irritable bowel syndrome? Gend Med. 2009;6 Suppl 2(Suppl 2):152-67. doi: 10.1016/j.genm.2009.03.004. PMID: 19406367; PMCID: PMC3322543.
[19.] Hillestad EMR, van der Meeren A, Nagaraja BH, Bjørsvik BR, Haleem N, Benitez-Paez A, Sanz Y, Hausken T, Lied GA, Lundervold A, Berentsen B. Gut bless you: The microbiota-gut-brain axis in irritable bowel syndrome. World J Gastroenterol. 2022 Jan 28;28(4):412-431. doi: 10.3748/wjg.v28.i4.412. PMID: 35125827; PMCID: PMC8790555.
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