Along with vitamins, your body needs minerals to execute physiological functions. Trace minerals are required in only small amounts but have a significant impact on health. The nine trace minerals are chromium, copper, fluoride, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, and zinc. The importance of trace minerals in human health ranges from bone strength to assisting with taste and smell to helping carry oxygen throughout the body. Each mineral has specific bodily functions, including the lesser-discussed mineral, molybdenum. Molybdenum can be found in rocks and soil, the mediums in which our food sources uptake this nutrient. Understanding its role in health, its critical biological functions, and how to obtain it in your diet to maintain a healthy balance is the focus of this article.
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What is Molybdenum?
Vitamins and minerals are essential building blocks for physiological processes in the body. Molybdenum is a naturally occurring element, abundantly present in many foods we consume. Understanding the role of the mineral Molybdenum (MO) can bring light to the complexity and importance of nutrition and physiological function. Starting in infancy, the mineral is absorbed from breast milk or formula and obtained from your diet throughout childhood and adulthood. Most people absorb between 40% to 100% of the Molybdenum from their diet, which is then utilized or stored in the bone, kidney, and liver. The kidney is the critical regulator of this mineral and will excrete any excess amount through the urine. This mineral is a cofactor in the breakdown of proteins and metabolizing purines and sulfur-containing food. It also assists in the processing of toxins, alcohol, and drugs through its enzymatic role. Deficiency in this mineral is rare but can occur in a specific genetic disorder that will be discussed in this article, called molybdenum cofactor deficiency.
Essential Biological Functions of Molybdenum
The critical function of Molybdenum is as a cofactor for various enzyme pathways. Molybdenum cofactor (MOCO) is essential in the enzymatic processes of sulfur, nitrogen, and carbon metabolism. MOCO is created by the binding of the mineral to a pterin protein site in molybdenum-dependent enzymes. These enzymes are referred to as Molybdoenzymes and include xanthine oxidase (XO), sulfite oxidase (SO), aldehyde oxidase (AO), and mitochondrial amidoxime-reducing component (mARC). These enzymes play an essential role in oxidation-reduction reactions, which occur when two molecules exchange electrons as part of cellular processes. This is important in many biological functions, especially in the breakdown of amino acids. Without molybdenum, these enzymes would not be able to do their job in amino acid metabolism. One of the primary roles of this mineral is in the detoxification reaction that occurs in the liver.
Importance of Molybdenum for Detoxification
Molybdenum cofactor is necessary for both phase I and phase II detoxification processes.
Molybdenum is also required for phase I detoxification of drug metabolism in the liver. When breaking down prescription medications, over-the-counter medications like Tylenol, or even alcohol, aldehyde oxidase is the molybdoenzyme that is needed. Xanthine oxidase is not utilized in the detox pathway, but its importance is in protecting DNA damage and healthy cellular function. One area of importance is its role in sulfite transformation.
Sulfite oxidase metabolizes the amino acids methionine and cysteine, which are sulfur-containing amino acids. This enzyme converts sulfite to sulfate, which the body can then use. This process is called sulfation and occurs in the liver as part of Phase II detoxification. Another name for this is conjugation, a phase of detoxification where byproducts are converted to water-soluble compounds that can be excreted through the urine or feces. Hiccups can occur in this process in those sensitive to sulfite-containing foods or beverages. Sulfites are added to foods as a preservative, are naturally present in some seafood, and can be used in the wine-making process. Exposure to sulfites in someone sensitive can result in allergy or asthma symptoms, which include shortness of breath, wheezing, coughing, stomach pain, nausea, diarrhea, skin inflammation, or skin rashes. Managing sulfite sensitivity is best done through avoidance of the offending foods while addressing the root cause. Having a genetic mutation in specific genes like the SUOX gene or CBS gene mutations can have a detrimental impact on one's ability to break down sulfur-containing foods, leading to serious health complications.
Molybdenum Interactions with Other Minerals
Mineral balance and interaction is one area of nutrient status to be aware of. For example, molybdenum and copper interaction have an antagonist relationship. Research shows that excess molybdenum can decrease the levels of copper in the body. In conditions of copper overload, like Wilson’s disease, molybdenum can be used as part of a chelating protocol. This should be closely monitored since it can lead to copper deficiency, which results in symptoms of low white blood cells, sideroblastic anemia, neuropathy, myelopathy, and seizures. This also works the other way. When copper is too low, this can increase the harmful effects of molybdenum, such as lung problems in workers exposed to high levels of MO. This molybdenum and copper interaction is more apparent in ruminant animals like cattle. Their feed has to be closely monitored since both molybdenum and sulfate can lead to copper deficiency. Eating a healthy and balanced diet is the best approach to mineral imbalance. If you are symptomatic and have a suspected mineral deficiency, it is best to get tested.
How To Test Your Molybdenum Status
Typically, providers don't test molybdenum on its own. Instead, molybdenum can be found on larger panels. The Metals Red Blood Cell Test by Mosaic Diagnostics (formerly Great Plains) tests 18 different metals and minerals, including molybdenum. It's a beneficial assessment that can detect whether these metals/minerals are deficient, in excess, or in an optimal status.
The Nutritional Metals (16 Elements), Urine by Access Medical Laboratories is another testing option via a urine sample that is less invasive. It tests for 16 different nutritional metals, including molybdenum.
Dietary Sources of Molybdenum
Consuming Molybdenum-rich foods through your diet is the primary source of this mineral. This can be tricky as this mineral's presence is predicated on having nutrient-dense soil and an environment in which the whole foods can be raised or grown with optimal levels of nutrients available. The pH of the soil also plays a critical role in the bioavailability of molybdenum in foods. Soil that has an acidic pH greater than 6 is more conducive for optimal MO presence.
A rule of thumb on how to incorporate Molybdenum in your diet is always to try and buy locally grown produce, farmers market items, or products that spend minimal time in transit. This can ensure that you are getting the most nutrients out of the items you are purchasing. Here is a list of the highest quantity and quality molybdenum foods.
In developed countries, molybdenum deficiency is rare. Recognizing molybdenum deficiency due to a genetic variant occurs in infancy or can present later in life in those with poor diet or lifestyle choices. The rare genetic condition is an autosomal recessive inheritance resulting in Molybdenum cofactor deficiency, which causes encephalopathy. This becomes apparent within a week of birth when these babies will have intractable seizures and feeding difficulties. This can lead to brain damage, severe developmental delays, small head circumference, and coarse facial features. Many babies with this condition do not survive beyond young childhood years. You can, however, have enzymes that are not working correctly, leading to symptoms that are reflective of issues metabolizing sulfur-rich foods, alcohol, or medications that require these molybdenum cofactors. It may not be an issue specifically with MO, but more so with the enzymes they help support.
Safety and Recommended Dosages
Getting adequate molybdenum in your diet is the primary means. Eating the foods mentioned above can help meet the RDA of this mineral. If there is a concern that you need to meet your needs, supplementing with molybdenum is an option. Safe dosages of Molybdenum start at 2 mcg per day and increase based on age:
It's unusual to consume too much molybdenum. Still, some people may be exposed to excess levels in their work environment. Miners and metalworkers are two professions where this is possible. Signs and symptoms of excess molybdenum include high blood levels of uric acid, joint aches, and gout-like presentations. The other concern would be the molybdenum and copper balancing, as mentioned above.
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Summary
The mineral molybdenum may not be one you hear of often, but it plays a detrimental role in behind-the-scenes processes. Getting adequate amounts through your diet and making sure you are eating a balanced diet to keep your mineral status in balance is the best way to support this nutrient in your body. Molybdenum helps keep copper in check while also playing a crucial part in detoxifying and processing sulfite-rich foods, alcohol, and medications. It also can support overall cellular processes and DNA function. While sulfite sensitivity and molybdenum cofactor deficiency are rare, it’s a factor to consider when complex and unexplained related newborn complications or sulfite-containing allergy issues arise. This issue can be investigated through mineral or genetic testing by your healthcare provider.
Along with vitamins, your body needs minerals to support physiological functions. Trace minerals are required in only small amounts but can have a significant impact on health. The nine trace minerals are chromium, copper, fluoride, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, and zinc. The importance of trace minerals in human health ranges from supporting bone strength to assisting with taste and smell to helping carry oxygen throughout the body. Each mineral has specific bodily functions, including the lesser-discussed mineral, molybdenum. Molybdenum can be found in rocks and soil, the mediums in which our food sources uptake this nutrient. Understanding its role in health, its critical biological functions, and how to obtain it in your diet to maintain a healthy balance is the focus of this article.
[signup]
What is Molybdenum?
Vitamins and minerals are essential building blocks for physiological processes in the body. Molybdenum is a naturally occurring element, abundantly present in many foods we consume. Understanding the role of the mineral Molybdenum (MO) can bring light to the complexity and importance of nutrition and physiological function. Starting in infancy, the mineral is absorbed from breast milk or formula and obtained from your diet throughout childhood and adulthood. Most people absorb between 40% to 100% of the Molybdenum from their diet, which is then utilized or stored in the bone, kidney, and liver. The kidney is the critical regulator of this mineral and will excrete any excess amount through the urine. This mineral is a cofactor in the breakdown of proteins and metabolizing purines and sulfur-containing food. It also assists in the processing of toxins, alcohol, and drugs through its enzymatic role. Deficiency in this mineral is rare but can occur in a specific genetic disorder that will be discussed in this article, called molybdenum cofactor deficiency.
Essential Biological Functions of Molybdenum
The critical function of Molybdenum is as a cofactor for various enzyme pathways. Molybdenum cofactor (MOCO) is essential in the enzymatic processes of sulfur, nitrogen, and carbon metabolism. MOCO is created by the binding of the mineral to a pterin protein site in molybdenum-dependent enzymes. These enzymes are referred to as Molybdoenzymes and include xanthine oxidase (XO), sulfite oxidase (SO), aldehyde oxidase (AO), and mitochondrial amidoxime-reducing component (mARC). These enzymes play an essential role in oxidation-reduction reactions, which occur when two molecules exchange electrons as part of cellular processes. This is important in many biological functions, especially in the breakdown of amino acids. Without molybdenum, these enzymes would not be able to do their job in amino acid metabolism. One of the primary roles of this mineral is in the detoxification reaction that occurs in the liver.
Importance of Molybdenum for Detoxification
Molybdenum cofactor is necessary for both phase I and phase II detoxification processes.
Molybdenum is also required for phase I detoxification of drug metabolism in the liver. When breaking down prescription medications, over-the-counter medications like Tylenol, or even alcohol, aldehyde oxidase is the molybdoenzyme that is needed. Xanthine oxidase is not utilized in the detox pathway, but its importance is in supporting DNA protection and healthy cellular function. One area of importance is its role in sulfite transformation.
Sulfite oxidase metabolizes the amino acids methionine and cysteine, which are sulfur-containing amino acids. This enzyme converts sulfite to sulfate, which the body can then use. This process is called sulfation and occurs in the liver as part of Phase II detoxification. Another name for this is conjugation, a phase of detoxification where byproducts are converted to water-soluble compounds that can be excreted through the urine or feces. Hiccups can occur in this process in those sensitive to sulfite-containing foods or beverages. Sulfites are added to foods as a preservative, are naturally present in some seafood, and can be used in the wine-making process. Exposure to sulfites in someone sensitive can result in allergy or asthma symptoms, which include shortness of breath, wheezing, coughing, stomach pain, nausea, diarrhea, skin inflammation, or skin rashes. Managing sulfite sensitivity is best done through avoidance of the offending foods while addressing the root cause. Having a genetic mutation in specific genes like the SUOX gene or CBS gene mutations can have a detrimental impact on one's ability to break down sulfur-containing foods, leading to serious health complications.
Molybdenum Interactions with Other Minerals
Mineral balance and interaction is one area of nutrient status to be aware of. For example, molybdenum and copper interaction have an antagonist relationship. Research shows that excess molybdenum can decrease the levels of copper in the body. In conditions of copper overload, like Wilson’s disease, molybdenum can be used as part of a chelating protocol. This should be closely monitored since it can lead to copper deficiency, which results in symptoms of low white blood cells, sideroblastic anemia, neuropathy, myelopathy, and seizures. This also works the other way. When copper is too low, this can increase the harmful effects of molybdenum, such as lung problems in workers exposed to high levels of MO. This molybdenum and copper interaction is more apparent in ruminant animals like cattle. Their feed has to be closely monitored since both molybdenum and sulfate can lead to copper deficiency. Eating a healthy and balanced diet is the best approach to mineral imbalance. If you are symptomatic and have a suspected mineral deficiency, it is best to get tested.
How To Test Your Molybdenum Status
Typically, providers don't test molybdenum on its own. Instead, molybdenum can be found on larger panels. The Metals Red Blood Cell Test by Mosaic Diagnostics (formerly Great Plains) tests 18 different metals and minerals, including molybdenum. It's a beneficial assessment that can detect whether these metals/minerals are deficient, in excess, or in an optimal status.
The Nutritional Metals (16 Elements), Urine by Access Medical Laboratories is another testing option via a urine sample that is less invasive. It tests for 16 different nutritional metals, including molybdenum.
Dietary Sources of Molybdenum
Consuming Molybdenum-rich foods through your diet is the primary source of this mineral. This can be tricky as this mineral's presence is predicated on having nutrient-dense soil and an environment in which the whole foods can be raised or grown with optimal levels of nutrients available. The pH of the soil also plays a critical role in the bioavailability of molybdenum in foods. Soil that has an acidic pH greater than 6 is more conducive for optimal MO presence.
A rule of thumb on how to incorporate Molybdenum in your diet is always to try and buy locally grown produce, farmers market items, or products that spend minimal time in transit. This can ensure that you are getting the most nutrients out of the items you are purchasing. Here is a list of the highest quantity and quality molybdenum foods.
In developed countries, molybdenum deficiency is rare. Recognizing molybdenum deficiency due to a genetic variant occurs in infancy or can present later in life in those with poor diet or lifestyle choices. The rare genetic condition is an autosomal recessive inheritance resulting in Molybdenum cofactor deficiency, which causes encephalopathy. This becomes apparent within a week of birth when these babies will have intractable seizures and feeding difficulties. This can lead to brain damage, severe developmental delays, small head circumference, and coarse facial features. Many babies with this condition do not survive beyond young childhood years. You can, however, have enzymes that are not working correctly, leading to symptoms that are reflective of issues metabolizing sulfur-rich foods, alcohol, or medications that require these molybdenum cofactors. It may not be an issue specifically with MO, but more so with the enzymes they help support.
Safety and Recommended Dosages
Getting adequate molybdenum in your diet is the primary means. Eating the foods mentioned above can help meet the RDA of this mineral. If there is a concern that you need to meet your needs, supplementing with molybdenum is an option. Safe dosages of Molybdenum start at 2 mcg per day and increase based on age:
It's unusual to consume too much molybdenum. Still, some people may be exposed to excess levels in their work environment. Miners and metalworkers are two professions where this is possible. Signs and symptoms of excess molybdenum include high blood levels of uric acid, joint aches, and gout-like presentations. The other concern would be the molybdenum and copper balancing, as mentioned above.
[signup]
Summary
The mineral molybdenum may not be one you hear of often, but it plays a crucial role in supporting various processes. Getting adequate amounts through your diet and making sure you are eating a balanced diet to keep your mineral status in balance is the best way to support this nutrient in your body. Molybdenum helps maintain copper balance while also playing a crucial part in processing sulfite-rich foods, alcohol, and medications. It also can support overall cellular processes and DNA function. While sulfite sensitivity and molybdenum cofactor deficiency are rare, it’s a factor to consider when complex and unexplained related newborn complications or sulfite-containing allergy issues arise. This issue can be investigated through mineral or genetic testing by your healthcare provider.
The information in this article is designed for educational purposes only and is not intended to be a substitute for informed medical advice or care. This information should not be used to diagnose or treat any health problems or illnesses without consulting a doctor. Consult with a health care practitioner before relying on any information in this article or on this website.
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Lab Tests in This Article
Metals - Toxic + Nutrient Elements - Red Blood Cell by Mosaic Diagnostics (formerly Great Plains)
Red Blood Cells
This test is an invaluable diagnostic method for assessing insufficiency or excess of elements that have important functions within cells or on blood cell membranes. RBC element levels are very useful for assessing cardiotonic influences, anti-inflammatory processes, anemia, immunological function, and glucose tolerance.
Nutritional Metals (16 Elements), Urine by Access Med Labs
Urine
This panel evaluates and monitors nutritional metals.
(1977). Molybdenum. Developments in Soil Science, 7, 55-62. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2481(08)70175-2
Backhouse, C. (2019, August 3). Why molybdenum matters. Transformation Nutri. https://www.transformationnutrition.org/post/2019/08/03/why-molybdenum-matters
Boston, 677 H. A., & Ma 02115 +1495‑1000. (2022, September 15). Molybdenum. The Nutrition Source. https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/molybdenum/
Cloyd, J. (2023, July 5). The Role of the Liver and Gut in Detoxification and How to Support Them With Integrative Medicine. Rupa Health. https://www.rupahealth.com/post/the-role-of-the-liver-gut-in-detoxification-and-how-to-support-it-with-integrative-medicine
Harvard Health Publishing. (2018, July). Precious metals and other important minerals for health - Harvard Health. Harvard Health; Harvard Health. https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/precious-metals-and-other-important-minerals-for-health
Litwin, T., Antos, A., Bembenek, J., Przybyłkowski, A., Skowrońska, M., & Członkowska, A. (2023). Copper Deficiency as Wilson’s Disease Overtreatment: A Systematic Review. Diagnostics, 13(14), 2424. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics13142424
Molybdenum. (2014, April 23). Linus Pauling Institute. https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/minerals/molybdenum
Sulfation - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.). Www.sciencedirect.com. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/sulfation
Sulfite Sensitivity and Asthma. (n.d.). Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/11323-sulfite-sensitivity
SUOX gene: MedlinePlus Genetics. (n.d.). Medlineplus.gov. Retrieved November 6, 2023, from https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/suox/#conditions
TY - JOUR AU - Thorndyke, Meghan AU - Guimaraes, Octavio AU - Kistner, Maddie AU - Wagner, John AU - Engle, Terry PY - 2021/07/13 SP - 2083 T1 - Influence of Molybdenum in Drinking Water or Feed on Copper Metabolism in Cattle—A Review VL - 11 DO - 10.3390/ani11072083 JO - Animals ER -
W., D., & Nasrallah, G. K. (2020). The Spectrum of Mutations of Homocystinuria in the MENA Region. Genes, 11(3), 330. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes11030330
What Is Sulfite Sensitivity? (n.d.). WebMD. https://www.webmd.com/allergies/sulfite-sensitivity
Yoshimura, H. (2023, May 26). Integrative Approaches to the Treatment of Gout: A Comprehensive Review. Rupa Health. https://www.rupahealth.com/post/integrative-approaches-to-the-treatment-of-gout-a-comprehensive-review
Zhang, Y., & Gladyshev, V. N. (2008). Molybdoproteomes and Evolution of Molybdenum Utilization. Journal of Molecular Biology, 379(4), 881-899. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmb.2008.03.051
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